March 2026

The arrest of six Ukrainian nationals and a US citizen by the National Investigation Agency (NIA) for allegedly crossing illegally into Myanmar via Mizoram to train ethnic armed organisations in weapons handling and drone warfare has brought India’s porous border with Myanmar into sharp national security focus. Compounding the significance of this case is data revealing that of the total 1,643 kilometres of the India-Myanmar border, only 43.75 kilometres have been fenced so far despite government approvals for 390.39 kilometres of fencing — a completion rate of barely 11 percent. A further 346.64 kilometres is currently under construction.

The case raises multiple interlinked national security, foreign policy, and governance concerns. The NIA’s allegation that the arrested foreigners were importing drones from Europe through India to Myanmar for use by ethnically armed groups (EAGs) — if proven — represents a serious breach of India’s border security architecture and highlights the potential for India’s territory to be used as a transit corridor for militarised conflict in its neighbourhood. The incident also has significant diplomatic dimensions, with the Embassy of Ukraine expressing “serious concern” over the arrests and rejecting allegations of Ukrainian state involvement in supporting terrorist activities.

For UPSC aspirants, this issue is a rich intersection of border management, internal security, the legal framework governing protected and restricted areas, India’s Myanmar policy, and the challenge of managing a border characterised by deep ethnic, cultural, and familial ties that cut across the international boundary.

Background and Context: India-Myanmar Border and the Free Movement Regime

Five Important Key Points

• The India-Myanmar international border stretches 1,643 kilometres across four Indian states — Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, and Mizoram — and has historically operated under a Free Movement Regime (FMR) that allowed residents within 16 kilometres of the border on either side to cross without visas or passports for traditional, cultural, and economic activities.
• Union Home Minister Amit Shah announced the scrapping of the FMR in February 2024, though it was technically only “regulated” rather than entirely abolished, with the free movement zone reduced from 16 kilometres to 10 kilometres — a distinction that has significant implications for border communities and continues to be contested.
• Of the total 1,643 kilometres of border, the government has sanctioned fencing for only 390.39 kilometres, of which just 43.75 kilometres has been completed, while 346.64 kilometres is under construction — a pace of completion that border security experts consider grossly inadequate given the scale of security challenges.
• The fencing project includes 43 designated exit and entry gates with biometric recording systems, but the number of functional gates has declined from 43 to 38 over the past two years, with only 20 currently operational — revealing significant gaps in the border management infrastructure even where fencing has been installed.
• India’s border management challenge is compounded by Myanmar’s ongoing civil conflict following the military coup of February 2021, which has generated large-scale internal displacement, disrupted the Myanmar Army’s ability to manage the border on its side, and created a complex landscape in which multiple ethnic armed organisations operate in border areas.

The NIA Case: Legal Framework and Security Implications

The arrested individuals — six Ukrainian nationals and a US citizen — were produced in court by the NIA on charges of illegally crossing into Myanmar via Mizoram while lacking the Protected Area Permit that is mandatory for foreign nationals wishing to visit Mizoram. The NIA has further alleged that they were engaged in training ethnic armed organisations in weapons handling and drone warfare, and that they were importing European-manufactured drones into Myanmar through Indian territory.

If these allegations are proven, they represent an extremely serious security breach. India’s north-eastern border states — particularly Mizoram and Manipur — have deep ethnic connections with communities in Myanmar. The Chin people of Myanmar share ethnicity, culture, and in many cases family ties with the Mizo community of Mizoram. The Kuki-Zo communities of Manipur similarly have counterparts across the Myanmar border. These cultural connections have historically facilitated cross-border movement that goes well beyond the formal FMR framework. The NIA case suggests that these informal border crossing networks may be being exploited by non-state actors for militarised purposes.

The Protected Area Permit System and Governance Gaps

Mizoram is a “restricted area” under the Indian regulatory framework, requiring foreign nationals to obtain a Protected Area Permit (PAP) from the Ministry of Home Affairs before visiting. The MEA spokesperson confirmed that the arrested foreigners “may be wanting of certain documents for travelling to that part of India,” a bureaucratic understatement of what appears to have been a deliberate circumvention of the permit system.

The PAP system’s effectiveness as a border security instrument depends on surveillance and enforcement within the border region, not just at formal entry points. The fact that foreign nationals were able to travel to Mizoram, cross into Myanmar, and return — potentially on multiple occasions, given reports that the US national had been under observation for several months — without triggering security interception until the NIA received intelligence inputs suggests significant surveillance gaps.

India’s Myanmar Policy: Balancing Stability, Ethnic Ties, and Security

India’s border management challenges are inseparable from its Myanmar policy. Following the military coup, Myanmar has descended into a complex civil conflict involving the Tatmadaw (military junta), the National Unity Government (NUG) representing democratic forces, and numerous ethnic armed organisations including the Arakan Army, Chin National Army, and various Kuki-Zo armed groups that have close connections with Indian border communities.

India has historically sought to maintain workable relations with the Myanmar military to protect its interests in border security, the Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project, and the India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway. However, the junta’s military failures against ethnic armed organisations and the humanitarian crisis in border areas have complicated this approach. India simultaneously needs to prevent its border from being used as a conflict corridor while maintaining the humanitarian obligations arising from refugee flows and the welfare of co-ethnic communities on both sides.

Drone Warfare and the Evolving Border Security Threat

The specific allegation that the arrested individuals were facilitating drone imports from Europe to Myanmar for use by ethnic armed groups introduces a new dimension to India’s border security challenge. Drone technology has transformed military conflict globally, including in the Myanmar civil war where various non-state actors have used commercial drones for surveillance and weaponised drones for strikes. If India’s territory is being used as a logistics corridor for drone supply chains to non-state armed groups in Myanmar, it creates significant legal, diplomatic, and security complications.

Defence Minister Rajnath Singh’s concurrent emphasis on India establishing itself as a global drone manufacturing hub by 2030 and his reference to drones as “decisive tools in modern warfare” — in the context of the Russia-Ukraine conflict and the Iran-Israel war — underscores that drone technology management has become a central national security challenge requiring both industrial strategy and export control frameworks.

Way Forward

India must urgently accelerate the border fencing programme, prioritising the completion of the already-sanctioned 390 kilometres before seeking further approvals. The number of functional biometric gates must be expanded from the current 20 to all 43 designated points. A dedicated Border Management Authority for the India-Myanmar border — with integrated intelligence, surveillance, and enforcement functions — should be established, drawing on the lessons of the Border Security Force’s deployment on the Pakistan and Bangladesh borders. India should also develop a comprehensive drone control policy for border areas, including electronic surveillance systems capable of detecting and interdicting drone movements across the international boundary. The Protected Area Permit system requires digital integration with immigration databases to enable real-time tracking of foreign nationals in restricted areas.

Relevance for UPSC and SSC Examinations

This topic falls under UPSC GS-III (Internal Security) — specifically under Border Management, Challenges to Internal Security through Communication Networks, Role of External State and Non-State Actors in creating challenges to Internal Security, and Linkages between Organised Crime and Terrorism. It is also relevant for GS-II (India’s Relations with Myanmar) and GS-III (Defence Technology).

For SSC examinations, key areas include border security, NIA, Free Movement Regime, Protected Area Permit, North-East India, and drone technology.

Key terms: Free Movement Regime, Protected Area Permit, NIA, ethnic armed organisations, border fencing, Myanmar civil conflict, Tatmadaw, National Unity Government, drone warfare, Kaladan Project, Chin National Army, Mizoram.

The Viksit Bharat Guarantee for Rozgar and Ajeevika Mission (Gramin) Act, 2025, India’s successor rural employment legislation to the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), is entering its implementation phase with significant institutional uncertainties. As reported in The Hindu of March 20, 2026, at least 24 States and Union Territories have earmarked funds for the new scheme even though the Union government has not yet notified the formula for determining State-wise normative allocations — a critical parameter defined under Section 4(5) of the Act. The Union Budget for 2026-27 has set aside Rs. 95,652 crore as the Centre’s share, while States must bear 40 percent of total expenditure, creating fiscal pressures particularly for States with large rural populations and limited own-tax revenue.

The VB-GRAM Act represents a significant architectural evolution from MGNREGA. It extends the guarantee from 100 to 125 days of employment per rural household per year, while the 40 percent State cost-sharing requirement is a fundamental departure from MGNREGA’s structure, which was centrally funded for wages. Understanding this transition — its design logic, fiscal implications, governance architecture, and implementation risks — is essential for UPSC aspirants studying India’s social protection system, rural development policy, and cooperative federalism.

The absence of the central normative allocation formula nearly a year after the Act’s passage raises important questions about Centre-State fiscal relations, the adequacy of financial devolution for rural States, and the governance capacity of a scheme that seeks to provide employment security to hundreds of millions of rural workers.

Background and Context: From MGNREGA to VB-GRAM

Five Important Key Points

• The VB-GRAM Act, 2025, extends the guaranteed employment entitlement from 100 days (under MGNREGA) to 125 days per rural household per year, a 25 percent increase in entitlement that significantly expands both the programme’s coverage and its fiscal cost.
• Unlike MGNREGA — which was funded almost entirely by the Centre for wages — VB-GRAM mandates a 40 percent State cost-sharing requirement (with relaxations for northeastern and hilly states and Union Territories), representing a fundamental shift in India’s fiscal federalism architecture for rural employment.
• The Union Budget 2026-27 has allocated Rs. 95,652 crore as the Centre’s share, but the critical formula for distributing this across States under Section 4(5) of the Act — which must be based on “objective parameters” — has not yet been notified, leaving States to use their past MGNREGA expenditure as a baseline for budget provisioning.
• Among the 24 States that have already provisioned funds, even Congress-ruled Himachal Pradesh — which has formally opposed the new Act — has allocated Rs. 143 crore, while Karnataka is identified as the only major outlier, reflecting the practical necessity of providing rural employment regardless of political positions on the legislation.
• The Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM), India’s flagship rural drinking water scheme with an Rs. 8.69 lakh crore outlay, is simultaneously facing implementation challenges related to “source sustainability,” with a Parliamentary Committee noting that JJM’s objectives will remain “unfulfilled” without sustainable water sources — illustrating the broader challenge of converting scheme expenditure into lasting rural development outcomes.

Historical Context: MGNREGA’s Achievements and Limitations

The MGNREGA, enacted in 2005 as a demand-driven right-based employment legislation under the UPA government, represented a transformative moment in India’s social protection architecture. At its peak, it provided employment to over 7 crore rural households annually, serving as both a safety net and a countercyclical fiscal tool during economic downturns. The Act created significant rural infrastructure including ponds, check dams, rural roads, and watershed development works, while simultaneously empowering marginalised communities — particularly Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and women — with guaranteed income rights.

However, MGNREGA also suffered from well-documented limitations: wage arrears running into thousands of crores, inadequate asset quality, poor integration with other rural development schemes, and the perception that it primarily addressed distress rather than productive employment. The VB-GRAM Act’s design reflects an attempt to address some of these limitations while expanding coverage — but it introduces new risks through the cost-sharing requirement and the increase in guaranteed days.

Constitutional and Fiscal Federalism Dimensions

The 40 percent State cost-sharing requirement represents a significant departure from the cooperative federalism model under which MGNREGA operated. Under MGNREGA, while States bore some administrative costs, the wage component — which constitutes the largest share of expenditure — was borne by the Centre. The VB-GRAM Act’s shift to a 60:40 Centre-State cost sharing for the full scheme expenditure creates a fiscal burden that many State governments argue is unsustainable given their existing debt levels, committed expenditures, and fiscal consolidation obligations.

This raises important questions about the constitutional framework governing centrally sponsored schemes. The National Development Council and successive Finance Commissions have emphasised that the design of centrally sponsored schemes must be sensitive to the fiscal capacity of States. When the Centre mandates a new entitlement but shifts a significant portion of the fiscal burden to States — particularly without providing the normative allocation formula that States need to plan their own budgets — it creates a governance vacuum that can disrupt programme delivery.

The absence of the Section 4(5) normative allocation formula also creates inequity risks. Economically weaker States with larger rural populations and lower per capita fiscal capacity may receive disproportionately lower Central allocations under objective parameters. This was a persistent complaint under MGNREGA, where States with greater administrative capacity tended to leverage Central funds more effectively than States with weaker implementation infrastructure.

Implementation Architecture and Ground-Level Challenges

States are currently using their past MGNREGA expenditure as the baseline for provisioning their 40 percent share under VB-GRAM, while also accounting for the additional 25 guaranteed workdays. This improvised approach creates significant uncertainty in State fiscal planning and may lead to either over-provisioning (fiscally costly) or under-provisioning (programmatically disruptive). For a State like Rajasthan, which has spent over Rs. 7,597 crore under MGNREGA in the current financial year, the 40 percent share would come to approximately Rs. 3,038 crore. Rajasthan has provisioned Rs. 4,000 crore, maintaining a margin for the expanded guarantee — a prudent but costly approach.

Technology integration is another implementation dimension. The scheme will need robust MIS infrastructure to manage the expanded entitlement, ensure timely wage payments, and track asset creation quality. MGNREGA’s experience with the NREGAsoft system revealed both the potential and the limitations of digital governance in rural employment programmes.

Way Forward

The Union Ministry of Rural Development must immediately notify the normative allocation formula under Section 4(5), ensuring it is based on transparent, objective parameters that account for both programme need (measured by rural poverty rates and employment demand) and State fiscal capacity. The formula must include a special provision for economically weaker States to ensure that the 40 percent cost-sharing requirement does not become a barrier to programme implementation in the States where rural employment need is greatest. The government should also explore convergence mechanisms between VB-GRAM and other rural development programmes — including PM Awas Yojana, PMGSY, and JJM — to ensure that rural employment translates into durable asset creation. Social audits, which were a cornerstone of MGNREGA’s accountability architecture, must be institutionalised under VB-GRAM with statutory backing and independent implementation.

Relevance for UPSC and SSC Examinations

This topic falls under UPSC GS-II (Governance and Social Justice) — specifically under Government Policies and Interventions, Welfare Schemes for Vulnerable Sections, and Federalism. It is also relevant for GS-III (Indian Economy) under Employment, Poverty, and Rural Development.

For SSC examinations, the topic covers government schemes, rural development, MGNREGA, cooperative federalism, and fiscal policy.

Key terms: VB-GRAM Act 2025, MGNREGA, normative allocation formula, cooperative federalism, 40 percent cost-sharing, rural employment guarantee, Section 4(5), Jal Jeevan Mission, social audit, NREGAsoft.

India’s Navigation with Indian Constellation (NavIC) system — the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) as an indigenous alternative to the US Global Positioning System (GPS) — is facing an acute operational crisis. As of March 2026, only three satellites in the constellation remain capable of providing Position, Navigation, and Timing (PNT) services, following the failure of an atomic clock aboard the IRNSS-1F satellite on March 13, 2026. Since a functional PNT constellation requires a minimum of four operational satellites, NavIC is currently unable to fulfil its primary mandate of providing reliable navigation services over the Indian subcontinent.

This development is of profound significance for India’s national security, economic competitiveness, and technological sovereignty. NavIC was conceived precisely because the United States refused to share GPS data with India during the 1999 Kargil conflict, forcing the Indian military to rely on commercial GPS with degraded accuracy at a critical moment. Two and a half decades later, India’s own navigation constellation is in operational distress, raising fundamental questions about ISRO’s institutional capacity, budget allocation, space sector governance, and the urgency of launching second-generation NVS series satellites.

For UPSC aspirants, this issue is a rich case study in space technology policy, science and technology governance, national security infrastructure, and the structural challenges facing India’s space programme at a moment of significant transition and ambition.

Background and Context: NavIC’s Genesis and Architecture

Five Important Key Points

• NavIC was conceptualised following India’s experience in the Kargil War of 1999, when the US refused to share GPS data for the conflict zone, forcing India to develop an indigenous satellite navigation system to ensure strategic autonomy in positioning, navigation, and timing services.
• The NavIC constellation’s first-generation satellites use rubidium atomic clocks manufactured by Swiss company SpectraTime, which have been persistently problematic — with multiple clock failures across the constellation contributing to its current state where only three of the original eleven satellites launched since 2013 are fully PNT-operational.
• ISRO’s second-generation NVS-02 satellite, intended to replenish the constellation, was placed in the wrong orbit during its launch attempt, constituting a critical mission failure at exactly the moment when the constellation most urgently needed augmentation.
• The NVS-01 satellite launched in May 2023 was the first to carry an indigenously developed rubidium atomic clock from ISRO’s Space Applications Centre (SAC), representing a critical import substitution milestone, and all subsequent second-generation NVS satellites will carry these indigenous clocks.
• India lacks a dedicated institutional structure analogous to the US GPS Directorate or the European Union Space Programme Agency (EUSPA) to govern NavIC operations, with ISRO simultaneously performing the roles of system designer, launcher, and operator — a structural overextension that dilutes institutional focus.

The Atomic Clock Problem: Technical and Procurement Challenges

The failure of the IRNSS-1F satellite’s rubidium atomic clock on March 13, 2026 — notably just three days after the satellite completed its 10-year design life — illustrates both the design limitations of the first-generation system and the absence of an adequate replacement schedule. Rubidium atomic clocks are the heart of navigation satellites; they provide the extraordinarily precise timekeeping that makes accurate positioning possible. The failure of Swiss-manufactured SpectraTime clocks across multiple NavIC satellites has raised questions about the original procurement decision and the quality assurance processes that governed it.

ISRO has proposed equipping each new satellite with five atomic clocks instead of the previous three, providing greater redundancy. However, the indigenous rubidium clock developed by ISRO’s SAC also faces procurement challenges that have not been fully resolved. The transition from foreign to indigenous clocks is essential for long-term resilience but requires sustained investment in component manufacturing and testing infrastructure.

Institutional Governance Deficit

One of the most significant structural problems identified by analysts is the absence of a dedicated NavIC management authority. In the United States, the GPS constellation is managed by the GPS Directorate within the Space Force, while the European Galileo constellation is managed by EUSPA. These are specialised agencies with ring-fenced budgets, dedicated personnel, and clear accountability structures.

ISRO, by contrast, is expected simultaneously to manage NavIC operations, develop new rocket technologies, execute a crewed spaceflight programme (Gaganyaan), operate earth observation satellites, handhold commercial space start-ups, and conduct R&D. The 2020 space sector reforms vouchsafed ISRO for R&D while designating NewSpace India Limited (NSIL) for commercialisation. However, the absence of a national space law — despite years of discussion — leaves ISRO in an ambiguous regulatory position, acting as both designer and operator of NavIC without the clear statutory authority and dedicated resources that a proper national navigation authority would possess.

NavIC’s Strategic and Economic Significance

The strategic importance of NavIC cannot be overstated. Navigation data is foundational to modern military operations — precision-guided munitions, UAV operations, network-centric warfare, and maritime domain awareness all depend on reliable, tamper-proof PNT services. The Kargil lesson was precisely that dependence on foreign navigation systems creates unacceptable strategic vulnerability during conflict scenarios.

Beyond defence, NavIC has significant civilian applications. The Union government has encouraged electronics manufacturers to include L1 band NavIC compatibility in consumer devices for better interoperability with GPS. Fishermen along the Indian coast use NavIC receivers for maritime safety. Precision agriculture, road transport management, disaster response operations, and civil aviation augmentation systems all have applications for NavIC data. A dysfunctional NavIC constellation therefore has economic costs that extend well beyond the defence sector.

The Launch Rate Problem and Budget Constraints

A key structural cause of the NavIC crisis is the mismatch between the rate of satellite decommissioning and the rate of replacement launches. The constellation has been degrading faster than it can be replenished. ISRO’s plan to launch three more second-generation NVS satellites in 2026 — while necessary — is insufficient given the severity of the current deficit and the organisation’s historical track record of delays.

The PSLV, which carries NavIC satellites, has experienced availability and reliability challenges. ISRO’s budget, which must simultaneously fund NavIC replenishment, the Gaganyaan human spaceflight programme, earth observation missions, and new rocket development, is clearly insufficient for all these demands at the pace and quality required. The government must make a clear strategic choice about prioritising NavIC replenishment given its direct national security implications.

Way Forward

The government must establish a dedicated Navigation Authority of India — a statutory body with ring-fenced budgetary allocation, specialised personnel, and clear accountability for NavIC operations and replenishment — modelled on international best practices. The NVS satellite launch cadence must be increased to at least two satellites per year to build redundancy beyond the minimum four-satellite threshold. The domestic rubidium atomic clock supply chain must be institutionalised through dedicated manufacturing facilities at ISRO SAC, supported by the Production Linked Incentive scheme for defence and space electronics. India must also enact a comprehensive National Space Law that clearly delineates the roles of ISRO, NSIL, and any future space regulatory authority, providing legal clarity and operational focus. International agreements for mutual signal authentication with GPS and Galileo should be pursued to provide fallback capability while the domestic constellation is rebuilt.

Relevance for UPSC and SSC Examinations

This topic falls under UPSC GS-III (Science and Technology) — specifically under Space Technology, National Security, and India’s Space Programme. It is also relevant for GS-II (Governance) through questions on institutional design and space sector reform.

For SSC examinations, the topic covers India’s space programme, ISRO, NavIC, national security technology, and indigenisation of technology.

Key terms: NavIC, IRNSS, rubidium atomic clock, PNT services, NVS-02, ISRO SAC, GPS Directorate, EUSPA, space sector reforms, Gaganyaan, NSIL, national space law, SpectraTime.

The military conflict that began on February 28, 2026, when the United States and Israel launched coordinated air strikes on Iran, has escalated dramatically through March 2026 into one of the most significant geopolitical crises of the decade. Israeli strikes on Iran’s South Pars gas field — one of the largest known gas reservoirs in the world, shared between Iran and Qatar — triggered Iranian retaliatory missile attacks on energy infrastructure in Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the UAE, and Israel. The Strait of Hormuz, through which approximately one-fifth of globally traded oil passes, has been effectively shut by Iran, sending Brent crude prices to $114 per barrel and causing widespread disruption to global energy supply chains.

For India, this conflict presents a multi-dimensional challenge of the highest order. India has 22 vessels earmarked for evacuation from the Strait of Hormuz, including 20 assessed as critical to the country’s energy security. Prime Minister Modi has been engaged in an intensive diplomatic outreach, speaking with leaders of France, Qatar, Jordan, Malaysia, Oman, and External Affairs Minister Jaishankar has spoken with UAE and Israeli counterparts. India’s diplomatic response, including its notable shift from condemning only Iranian attacks to now calling for the cessation of attacks on “civilian infrastructure across the region,” signals a careful recalibration of its strategic messaging.

This issue is of paramount importance for UPSC aspirants because it encapsulates nearly every dimension of India’s foreign policy: energy security, diaspora welfare, maritime security, multilateral diplomacy through BRICS and SCO, non-alignment principles, and the management of relationships with geopolitically opposed partners simultaneously.

Background and Context: The Strategic Geography of the Strait of Hormuz

Five Important Key Points

• The Strait of Hormuz, at its narrowest approximately 33 kilometres wide, is the world’s most critical oil chokepoint, through which passes nearly one-fifth of globally traded oil and 20 percent of global LNG exports including from Qatar’s Ras Laffan Industrial City, which was struck by Iranian missiles in March 2026.
• India has 60 mmscmd of its 195 mmscmd total natural gas consumption routed through the Strait of Hormuz, and 47 percent of its LNG imports originate from Qatar alone, making the Hormuz closure an acute energy security crisis.
• India has been engaged in direct diplomatic negotiations with Tehran to secure safe passage for 22 India-bound vessels, with maritime intelligence firms reporting that at least one Indian LPG carrier was allowed through an unusual route close to Iranian territorial waters following payment of approximately $2 million to Iranian authorities per vessel.
• The conflict has created a diplomatic contradiction within BRICS (which India chairs in 2026) — as both Iran and the UAE are members but hold opposing positions, preventing India from forging a consensus BRICS statement, in contrast to the SCO (which includes Iran but not UAE) which issued a statement condemning strikes on Iran as early as March 2.
• India’s declaratory position has evolved significantly — from co-sponsoring a UN Security Council resolution condemning only Iranian attacks to now explicitly calling for an end to attacks on “civilian energy infrastructure across the region,” reflecting both India’s growing concern about economic consequences and its desire to maintain channels of communication with all parties.

India’s Energy Diplomacy and the Hormuz Negotiation

India’s approach to securing vessel passage through the Hormuz Strait reveals the complex operational reality of energy diplomacy. According to maritime intelligence firm Lloyd’s List Intelligence, Iranian Revolutionary Guards Corps (IRGC) naval forces and port authorities are assessing vessels individually before permitting passage, with India having established a direct communication channel with Tehran following Prime Minister Modi’s call with Iranian President Pezeshkian on March 12. The process was paused following Israeli strikes on South Pars, illustrating the fragility of diplomatic arrangements in an active conflict zone.

The fact that India has “earmarked” 20 vessels as critical to its energy security is itself significant — it signals both the depth of India’s dependence on Gulf energy flows and the extent of the operational planning that accompanies India’s energy security architecture. India must now confront the question of whether its reliance on any single chokepoint for energy imports represents an unacceptable strategic vulnerability.

India’s Diplomatic Posture: Strategic Autonomy Under Stress

India’s foreign policy has traditionally been characterised as maintaining “strategic autonomy” — the capacity to engage with multiple power centres without binding alliance commitments. The Iran-Israel-US conflict stress-tests this posture acutely. India has deep economic relationships with the Gulf states (which host approximately 9 million Indian workers and are sources of significant remittances), maintains civilisational and energy ties with Iran, has a growing strategic partnership with Israel (particularly in defence and technology), and simultaneously seeks to manage its relationship with the United States, which is both a primary security partner and the lead protagonist in the conflict.

India’s decision to not publicly condemn US-Israeli strikes on Iran — even while calling for restraint — reflects this balancing act. However, India’s co-sponsorship of a UNSC resolution condemning Iranian attacks without equally condemning the initial US-Israeli strikes drew criticism and may have complicated its diplomatic positioning with Tehran. The subsequent shift in MEA’s language to include condemnation of attacks on “civilian energy infrastructure across the region” suggests an acknowledgment that India’s earlier messaging was insufficiently balanced.

BRICS, SCO, and the Limitations of Multilateralism

The conflict has exposed the structural limitations of multilateral forums in which India participates. BRICS, which India chairs in 2026, includes both Iran and the UAE as members. Their directly opposed positions on the conflict have made consensus impossible. The SCO, which includes Iran but not the UAE, was able to issue a statement on March 2 condemning strikes on Iran. These contrasting outcomes reveal that India’s multilateral diplomacy is most effective in forums where its partners share convergent interests, and that the expansion of BRICS to include geopolitically opposed members has reduced, rather than enhanced, the forum’s policy utility.

This has important implications for India’s multilateral strategy. The diversification of India’s partnership portfolio — through the Quad, SCO, BRICS, and bilateral strategic partnerships — provides diplomatic flexibility but can also create contradictions that require careful management.

FTA Negotiations and the Economic Collateral Damage

The conflict has also delayed India’s Free Trade Agreement negotiations with Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries and Israel, both of which had just commenced in February 2026. The India-GCC FTA, launched on February 24, is now indefinitely delayed. The India-Israel bilateral FTA, which had its first round of negotiations in late February 2026, is similarly on hold. Meanwhile, the India-UK Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement, signed in July 2025, is on track for implementation by May 1, 2026. The differential impact of the West Asia crisis on India’s various trade negotiations illustrates how geopolitical events can reshape the trade policy landscape.

Way Forward

India must accelerate the diversification of its energy import basket, reducing dependency on the Hormuz corridor through greater LNG imports from Australia and the United States. The government should urgently expand the Strategic Petroleum Reserve capacity and invest in pipeline connectivity with alternative suppliers where feasible. On the diplomatic front, India should utilise its unique positioning as a country with dialogue channels with all parties — including Iran, Israel, the US, and Gulf states — to actively facilitate back-channel communication and contribute to de-escalation. India’s chairmanship of BRICS in 2026 provides a platform for articulating a Global South perspective on energy security and the humanitarian costs of geopolitical conflict.

Relevance for UPSC and SSC Examinations

This topic falls under UPSC GS-II (International Relations) — specifically India’s Foreign Policy, India’s Relations with neighbouring countries and Gulf states, and India’s participation in multilateral forums. It is also relevant for GS-III (Energy Security, Impact of External Sector on Domestic Economy) and Essay Paper.

For SSC examinations, key areas include India’s foreign policy, Strait of Hormuz, BRICS, SCO, energy security, and India-Gulf relations.

Key terms: Strategic autonomy, Strait of Hormuz, Hormuz chokepoint, India-GCC FTA, BRICS, SCO, LNG, South Pars, Lloyd’s List Intelligence, energy security, MEA.

On March 20, 2026, Indian equity markets experienced their worst single-session decline since June 2024, with the BSE Sensex crashing over 3.26 percent to close at 74,207.24 points and the Nifty 50 closing at 23,002.15 points. The crash was triggered by a confluence of two major external shocks: Brent crude oil prices surging to $114 a barrel following Israeli strikes on Iran’s South Pars gas field and Iran’s retaliatory attacks on energy infrastructure in Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE, and the United States Federal Reserve signalling that elevated inflation may prevent further interest rate cuts in 2026. All 21 sectoral indices on the NSE closed in the red, with Nifty Auto falling more than 4 percent. The rupee depreciated to a new low of Rs. 92.89 against the US dollar during intraday trading.

This market event is not merely a financial story. It illuminates India’s structural vulnerabilities as an oil-importing economy heavily dependent on Gulf energy supplies, the cascading impact of geopolitical conflicts thousands of kilometres away on domestic inflation and monetary policy, and the behavioural dynamics of foreign institutional investment in emerging markets. For UPSC aspirants, this event provides a real-time case study in the interaction between global commodity markets, monetary policy, exchange rate dynamics, and fiscal management.

The fact that this is the fifth instance since 2021 when benchmark indices dipped more than 3 percent in a single session also raises important questions about market resilience, investor protection, and the adequacy of circuit breaker mechanisms in India’s financial architecture. Understanding why oil price shocks translate into equity market crashes, currency depreciation, and inflationary pressure requires a grasp of macroeconomic concepts that are central to GS-III.

Background and Context: India’s Oil Import Dependency and Its Macroeconomic Consequences

Five Important Key Points

• India is the world’s third-largest consumer and second-largest importer of crude oil, importing approximately 85 to 87 percent of its total petroleum requirements, making it acutely vulnerable to global crude price fluctuations.
• The Middle East and Gulf region — including Saudi Arabia, UAE, Iraq, and Iran — accounts for roughly half of India’s Diammonium Phosphate (DAP) and urea imports in addition to crude oil, meaning an energy crisis in West Asia has compounded supply chain implications across agriculture as well.
• The US Federal Reserve’s decision to hold interest rates steady in the 3.5 to 3.75 percent range while signalling that elevated inflation could stymie further rate cuts makes American markets more attractive for Foreign Portfolio Investors, intensifying capital outflows from emerging markets like India.
• Brent crude at $114 per barrel, if sustained, would significantly widen India’s current account deficit, erode the fiscal space available for capital expenditure, and exert upward pressure on domestic retail fuel prices and inflation.
• India’s Strait of Hormuz dependency is critical — with 60 mmscmd of the country’s 195 mmscmd natural gas consumption routed through the strait, any prolonged closure directly threatens energy security, particularly for the fertiliser and power sectors.

The Mechanics of an Oil Price Shock on the Indian Economy

When crude oil prices rise sharply, the effects propagate through the Indian economy through multiple transmission channels. The most direct is the impact on the import bill. India’s crude oil imports in 2024-25 were valued at approximately $130 billion at prevailing prices. At $114 per barrel — more than $30 above the budget assumption of approximately $80 per barrel for 2026-27 — the annual import bill could increase by $35 to $40 billion, significantly widening the current account deficit and putting pressure on the rupee.

A depreciating rupee, in turn, makes imports even more expensive in rupee terms, creating a feedback loop. The rupee touched Rs. 92.89 on March 20, 2026, a historic low. Currency depreciation increases the cost of debt servicing for Indian entities that have borrowed in foreign currency, and it raises the effective cost of all imports, not just crude oil. This translates into broad-based inflationary pressure — what economists call imported inflation — which is particularly difficult for the Reserve Bank of India to manage because it cannot be addressed through conventional monetary policy tools alone.

Federal Reserve Policy and the Capital Flow Dimension

The Federal Reserve’s signal that it will maintain higher interest rates for longer has significant implications for India’s capital account. In the classic carry trade dynamic, when US interest rates are high, global investors prefer safe, high-yielding American assets over riskier emerging market investments. This triggers capital outflows from markets like India, putting downward pressure on the rupee and equity valuations simultaneously — a phenomenon known as a “double whammy” for emerging economies.

Foreign Portfolio Investors (FPIs) have been net sellers in Indian equity markets for several months. The combination of a strong dollar, elevated US bond yields, and geopolitical uncertainty in India’s largest energy-supplying region creates an environment where the risk-reward calculation for emerging market exposure becomes unfavourable. The RBI faces a policy dilemma: raising interest rates to defend the rupee would slow domestic growth, while maintaining accommodative policy risks further currency depreciation.

India’s Resilience Mechanisms and Their Limitations

India has built several resilience mechanisms to buffer oil price shocks. The Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR) maintained by the Indian Strategic Petroleum Reserves Limited (ISPRL) at Visakhapatnam, Mangaluru, and Padur has a combined capacity of approximately 5.33 million metric tonnes, providing roughly 9.5 days of import cover. While this provides a short-term buffer, it is clearly insufficient for a prolonged crisis.

India’s diversification of oil suppliers — increasing the share of Russian crude from 2.5 percent in 2021 to 39 percent by 2023 — has provided some insulation, but Russian oil access through the Strait of Hormuz also faces complications in the current conflict scenario. The government has announced the Rs. 497 crore RELIEF scheme to provide credit insurance for exporters affected by the West Asia crisis, reflecting the commercial disruption beyond just energy markets.

Sectoral Implications: Automobiles, Aviation, Fertilisers, and Inflation

Different sectors of the Indian economy are affected asymmetrically by oil price shocks. The automobile sector, which saw Nifty Auto fall over 4 percent on March 20, faces input cost pressures as petrochemicals, rubber, and logistics costs rise. Airlines face higher aviation turbine fuel (ATF) costs, which typically account for 30 to 40 percent of total operating costs. The fertiliser sector, which depends on LNG as a feedstock for urea production, faces production cost increases that either reduce farm profitability or increase the government’s fertiliser subsidy burden.

From a fiscal perspective, if the government chooses to absorb rising fuel costs rather than passing them to consumers — a politically common choice — the fiscal deficit widens, reducing the space for productive capital expenditure. This creates a medium-term growth drag even after the immediate oil price shock subsides.

Way Forward

India urgently needs to accelerate its strategic energy diversification by expanding the SPR capacity to at least 30 days of import cover, as recommended by the International Energy Agency. The government should fast-track renewable energy targets, particularly green hydrogen, which can reduce dependence on imported natural gas. Domestic crude production, which has stagnated, must be revived through enhanced oil recovery technologies in existing fields. India should also institutionalise energy diplomacy as a component of foreign policy, maintaining strategic relationships with all major producers including Russia, Gulf states, and African suppliers. From a monetary policy standpoint, the RBI must maintain adequate foreign exchange reserves — currently around $620 billion — to intervene effectively in currency markets during periods of excessive volatility.

Relevance for UPSC and SSC Examinations

This topic falls under UPSC GS-III (Indian Economy) — specifically under Inflation, Monetary Policy, Balance of Payments, Energy Security, and Infrastructure. It is also linked to GS-II (International Relations) through the West Asia conflict’s economic dimensions.

For SSC examinations, the topic covers Indian Economy fundamentals including oil import dependency, current account deficit, rupee depreciation, inflation, Federal Reserve policy, and capital flows.

Key terms: Brent crude, current account deficit, Federal Reserve, Foreign Portfolio Investors, Strategic Petroleum Reserve, imported inflation, carry trade, ISPRL, ATF, rupee depreciation.

On March 13, 2026, the Union government tabled the Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Amendment Bill, 2026 in the Lok Sabha, triggering one of the most significant constitutional controversies in recent memory. The Bill proposes to fundamentally alter the existing framework of gender self-identification, which was established under the Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019, replacing it with a state-determined, medically verified system of gender recognition. Within hours of the Bill’s introduction, tens of thousands of transgender persons, civil society organisations, lawyers, and human rights advocates mobilised across India, staging protests in Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Hyderabad, Pune, Varanasi, Indore, and Chennai.

The Bill’s most controversial proposal is the restriction of the definition of a “transgender person” to those with biological markers or those associated with socio-cultural identities such as hijra, kinner, aravani, jogta, or eunuch. This effectively excludes transmen, many transwomen, and genderqueer persons from legal recognition. Furthermore, the Bill proposes establishing a medical board to recommend to the District Magistrate whether a transgender certificate should be issued, giving bureaucratic authority the power to determine gender — a right that the Supreme Court’s landmark NALSA judgment had placed firmly with the individual.

For UPSC aspirants, this issue sits at the intersection of constitutional law, fundamental rights jurisprudence, social justice, and the limits of legislative power. It raises critical questions about the scope of Article 21 (right to life and personal liberty), Article 14 (equality before law), Article 15 (prohibition of discrimination), the doctrine of proportionality, and the state’s power to restrict fundamental rights. It also illustrates the tension between legislative majoritarianism and constitutional morality — a concept that has gained increasing significance in recent Supreme Court judgments.

Background and Context: From NALSA to the 2019 Act and Its Proposed Reversal

Five Important Key Points

• The Supreme Court’s 2014 NALSA v. Union of India judgment recognised a third gender beyond the male-female binary and held that the right to self-perceived gender identity is an essential aspect of human dignity protected under Article 21 of the Constitution.
• The Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019, codified the NALSA principles by allowing any person whose gender perception differs from the sex assigned at birth to self-declare their transgender identity through a notarised affidavit without any physical or medical examination.
• As of March 2026, only approximately 35,000 applications have been filed for transgender certificates out of over 4.8 lakh persons who marked the “other” gender option in the 2011 Census, indicating significant administrative and social barriers to certification even under the existing framework.
• The Amendment Bill’s proposal to establish a medical board to assess and recommend gender certification has been criticised by doctors as scientifically flawed, since it conflates biological sex with gender identity — two conceptually distinct categories in both medical and legal understanding.
• Several institutional frameworks including the Employees’ Provident Fund Organisation (EPFO), the Unique Identification Authority of India (UIDAI), and state school boards had already begun incorporating the self-identification principle into their operational frameworks before the proposed amendment threatened to reverse these gains.

The NALSA Judgment and Its Constitutional Foundations

The NALSA judgment delivered by a two-judge bench of the Supreme Court in 2014 remains one of the most progressive constitutional pronouncements in Indian legal history. The Court held that gender identity lies at the core of personal identity, and is, therefore, a fundamental right under Article 21. It emphasised that neither medical nor surgical intervention should be made a precondition for the recognition of a person’s self-identified gender. The Court further directed the Union and State governments to take positive steps to grant legal recognition to the third gender, extend reservations, and address social discrimination.

What is constitutionally significant is that the NALSA bench drew extensively from international human rights frameworks, including the Yogyakarta Principles, to articulate a rights-based understanding of gender identity. The judgment placed India among the progressive jurisdictions globally, alongside Argentina and Ireland, in recognising self-determination of gender as a fundamental right. The 2019 Act was meant to be the legislative realisation of these constitutional mandates, though civil society had criticised even that Act for containing provisions — such as the prohibition on separating transgender persons from their families — that were paternalistic.

What the Amendment Bill Proposes and Why It Is Legally Problematic

The Amendment Bill narrows the definition of a transgender person to those who have “biological markers” or belong to specific socio-cultural identities. This approach is legally problematic on multiple counts. First, it directly contradicts the NALSA judgment, which explicitly rejected biological determinism in the context of gender identity. Second, by establishing a medical board with authority to recommend certification to the District Magistrate, the Bill introduces an administrative gatekeeping mechanism that the Supreme Court had specifically warned against in its 2014 ruling.

The Bill’s text itself states that its purpose “was and is not to protect each and every class of persons with various gender identities, self-perceived sex/gender identities or gender fluidities.” This explicit statement of exclusionary legislative intent can be challenged under Articles 14 and 21. The Supreme Court has held in a series of cases, including Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India (2018) and Justice K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India (2017), that laws which arbitrarily discriminate or curtail personal liberty without a legitimate state aim and without satisfying the proportionality test cannot withstand constitutional scrutiny.

Medical and Governance Concerns

The proposal to mandate medical institutes to report details of gender-affirming care raises serious concerns about doctor-patient confidentiality, which is a well-established principle in medical ethics and has been judicially recognised as part of the right to privacy under Article 21. If doctors are required to report patients seeking gender-affirming interventions to state authorities, it creates a chilling effect on access to legitimate medical care.

Furthermore, the creation of a medical board competent to determine gender identity reveals a fundamental misunderstanding of gender science. As medical professionals quoted in reports clarify, gender is not located in the body but is a matter of identity. A medical board equipped with biological assessment tools cannot meaningfully determine a person’s gender identity. The proposal therefore creates not just legal absurdity but institutional dysfunction.

The Global Context and Reversals in Trans Rights

The Amendment Bill’s trajectory mirrors a global backlash against transgender rights that has emerged most visibly in the United States and the United Kingdom since 2022. In the UK, the NHS has restricted puberty blockers; in several American states, legislation restricting gender-affirming care for minors has been passed. Pakistan, which had enacted a progressive Transgender Persons Protection of Rights Act in 2018 — ahead of India — subsequently saw conservative groups challenge it, and a Sharia court issued rulings that effectively reverted the law to require medical verification.

India’s proposed amendment therefore reflects a global ideological shift rather than a domestic governance necessity. The critical distinction, however, is that India’s constitutional framework — particularly Article 21 as interpreted by the Supreme Court — provides much stronger protections for individual autonomy than the legislative frameworks of many western jurisdictions. Any Indian law that seeks to restrict self-identification must therefore survive a much higher constitutional threshold.

Social and Economic Consequences for Transgender Persons

The practical consequences of this amendment, if enacted, would be severe. Transgender persons who have already received certificates under the 2019 Act face uncertainty about the validity of their existing documentation. Corporate inclusion policies that reference the 2019 Act’s definitions — such as health insurance policies covering gender-affirming care — would face rollback. As community leaders and advocates have pointed out, the exclusion of transmen and non-binary persons from legal recognition would push many individuals back into informal, economically marginalised settings, increasing dependence on traditional gharana systems and restricting access to formal employment, education, and healthcare.

The EPFO and UIDAI had begun operationalising the self-identification framework. The proposed amendment creates legal uncertainty about whether these administrative changes can be sustained, creating friction across multiple institutional layers.

Way Forward

The government must immediately refer the Amendment Bill to a Parliamentary Standing Committee for comprehensive consultations with transgender communities, medical professionals, constitutional lawyers, and civil society. Any legislative intervention must be tested against the NALSA judgment, the Puttaswamy privacy ruling, and the proportionality doctrine before being tabled. Instead of restricting recognition, the government should focus on addressing the 5,000 rejected applications under the existing framework by improving administrative awareness and sensitivity training for District Magistrates. A grievance redressal mechanism within the existing Act would address administrative inefficiency without requiring the restriction of fundamental rights. India must also comply with its international obligations under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), to which it is a signatory.

Relevance for UPSC and SSC Examinations

This topic falls under UPSC GS-II (Polity and Governance) — specifically under Fundamental Rights, Welfare of Vulnerable Sections, and Government Policies for Vulnerable Sections. It is also relevant for GS-IV (Ethics and Human Values) in the context of constitutional morality versus social morality. For Essay Paper, it can serve as a theme for essays on identity, dignity, and the limits of state power.

For SSC examinations, key areas include Constitutional Provisions (Articles 14, 15, 21), Landmark Judgments (NALSA v. Union of India, Navtej Johar v. Union of India), and important legislation (Transgender Persons Act, 2019).

Key terms: NALSA judgment, gender self-identification, Yogyakarta Principles, doctrine of proportionality, constitutional morality, Article 21, gender-affirming care, hijra, transgender certificate.

Nearly three years after two Kuki-Zo women were disrobed, paraded, and gang-raped by a mob in Manipur’s Thoubal district on May 4, 2023, an attack in which the brother and father of one of the survivors were also killed, three of the accused in the case remain absconding, two have been released on bail by the Gauhati High Court, and the bail application of a third accused is pending before the Supreme Court. The eyewitness husband of one of the victims, an ex-Army soldier serving as a key witness, has publicly stated that the prime suspect identified as Loya, accused of the killings, continues to move freely despite the survivors’ identification, and that no serious efforts are being made to apprehend him.

The case came to national attention only on July 19, 2023, when a video clip of the assault went viral on social media, more than two months after the incident occurred on May 4. The viral video triggered Supreme Court intervention, a transfer of the case to the CBI, a change of trial venue from Manipur to Guwahati on the grounds that the victims could not safely travel to valley areas for hearings, and the appointment of former Maharashtra Police chief Dattatray Padsalgikar as a Special Investigation Team coordinator to oversee multiple Manipur violence cases. The CBI filed a chargesheet on October 12, 2023.

For UPSC aspirants, this case is not merely a criminal justice matter but a test of constitutional law, internal security, the rights of ethnic minorities under the constitutional framework, the accountability of state police forces during communal violence, and the adequacy of judicial monitoring mechanisms for mass human rights violations. The CBI chargesheet’s revelation that police officers present at the scene refused to assist the women, allegedly claiming their vehicle had no key before leaving them to the mob, represents an institutional failure of the gravest kind and raises questions about the accountability of security forces under Article 21 of the Constitution.

Background and Context of the Manipur Ethnic Violence

Five Important Key Points

• The ethnic violence between Kuki-Zo and Meitei communities in Manipur erupted on May 3, 2023, initially triggered by a High Court direction to the state government to consider the inclusion of Meiteis in the Scheduled Tribe category, which the Kuki-Zo community perceived as a threat to their tribal land rights and political representation, with the conflict rapidly expanding to encompass displacement of over 60,000 people, destruction of thousands of homes, and hundreds of fatalities.
• The CBI chargesheet against the accused in the Thoubal gang rape case alleges that Loya, the prime suspect, beat the brother and father of one of the victims to death using a large wooden log and also participated in the sexual assault, while Chinglen and Inaoton, also named by survivors, remain absconding alongside Loya despite the survivors’ identification of all three during a virtual test identification parade.
• The Gauhati High Court granted bail on September 8, 2025, to two accused, Nameirakpam Kiran Meitei and Arun Khundongbam, acknowledging the gravity of the allegations against them but holding that continued incarceration without trial cannot be used as pre-trial punishment, a legally correct but contextually difficult decision given the broader environment of ethnic violence in Manipur.
• The CBI chargesheet noted that policemen present at the scene of the mob assault refused to assist the women and allegedly claimed their police vehicle had no key before departing, leaving the women to face the mob alone, a level of institutional complicity that the CBI said was still under investigation as of the chargesheet date.
• The Supreme Court’s 12th status report monitoring on February 26, 2026, revealed that Manipur has constituted 36 Special Investigation Teams across eight districts to investigate riot-related cases, with 31 serious cases handed over to the CBI, but the pace of trial and the number of absconding accused across multiple cases suggests that the judicial monitoring mechanism, while valuable, has not translated into the timely justice that survivors were promised.

Constitutional Dimensions: Article 21 and State Accountability

The Thoubal case raises the most fundamental question that Article 21 jurisprudence addresses: whether the state’s duty to protect the right to life and personal liberty includes positive obligations to prevent mob violence against citizens, and whether the deliberate inaction of state security forces during such violence constitutes a constitutional violation for which the state bears direct liability.

In Francis Coralie Mullin versus Union Territory of Delhi (1981), the Supreme Court held that Article 21 encompasses the right to live with dignity, not merely the right to exist. The disrobing, parading, and gang rape of the two women by a mob, in the presence of police who refused to intervene, represents simultaneously a physical attack on the right to life and a profound assault on human dignity. The state’s failure to prevent this attack through the officers it had deployed at the scene, and its subsequent failure to apprehend the absconding accused three years after the incident, raises serious questions about the state’s culpability under Article 21’s positive obligation framework.

The CBI Investigation and Its Limitations

The transfer of the case to the CBI on the Supreme Court’s direction was intended to ensure investigation free from local political pressure. The CBI has filed a chargesheet and has been actively pursuing the case, including filing appeals against the bail granted to the two accused. However, three central limitations have constrained the investigation’s effectiveness.

First, the principal accused Loya remains at large, and his continued freedom suggests either that local intelligence networks are sheltering him or that there is insufficient operational will within the law enforcement system to locate and arrest him. Second, the trial itself has been slowed by logistical challenges, with hearings being conducted by videoconference from Guwahati because the victims cannot safely travel to valley areas of Manipur. This arrangement, while necessary for the victims’ protection, significantly reduces the courtroom effectiveness of victim testimony and creates practical barriers to the full adversarial trial that justice requires. Third, the broader pattern of 31 serious Manipur cases being investigated by the CBI, with 36 SITs covering additional cases, means that resources and attention are stretched across a massive caseload, reducing the intensity of focus on individual cases.

Internal Security and Federalism

The Manipur situation exposes a fundamental tension in India’s federal security architecture. The state government is primarily responsible for maintaining public order under Entry 1 of List II of the Seventh Schedule, but when the state government itself is perceived by one of the two conflict parties as being partial to the other, the ordinary mechanisms of state police investigation and prosecution lose credibility. The Central government’s tools for intervening in state law and order situations are limited: it can deploy Central Armed Police Forces, recommend President’s Rule under Article 356, or initiate a CBI investigation, but it cannot directly supervise state police operations.

The Supreme Court’s monitoring role, exercised through the Padsalgikar committee, represents a judicial attempt to fill this institutional gap. But as the Thoubal case demonstrates, judicial monitoring can ensure that investigations are conducted and chargesheets are filed but cannot guarantee that absconding accused are arrested, that witnesses are protected, or that trials proceed at a pace that delivers timely justice.

Way Forward

The Supreme Court should issue a specific direction to the central government to deploy National Investigation Agency resources to trace and apprehend the three absconding accused in the Thoubal case, using the NIA’s broader geographical reach and intelligence access. The trial court in Guwahati should establish a dedicated fast-track schedule for the Thoubal case, targeting completion within twelve months, with the Supreme Court monitoring compliance on a monthly basis. The National Human Rights Commission should conduct an independent inquiry into the role of police personnel who were present at the scene and failed to protect the victims, with findings submitted to the Supreme Court and state government for action under the relevant service conduct rules.

Relevance for UPSC and SSC Examinations

This topic is relevant to UPSC Mains GS Paper II under Indian Polity and Governance, specifically internal security, constitutional rights of minorities, and the accountability of state security forces. It connects to GS Paper I under communal violence, tribal rights, and Northeast India’s social geography. For GS Paper IV, the ethical failure of police duty during mass violence directly addresses professional ethics and integrity in public service. For the Essay paper, themes around justice, constitutional obligations, internal security, or women’s rights would draw on this material. For SSC examinations, internal security, the CBI, Supreme Court monitoring, and fundamental rights are covered. Key terms aspirants must remember include Article 21, CBI, Special Investigation Team, Unlawful Activities Prevention Act, fast-track court, National Investigation Agency, Gauhati High Court, test identification parade, Prakash Singh judgment, and internal security versus state subject.

A Supreme Court Bench headed by Chief Justice of India Surya Kant directed the Union government on March 15, 2026, to revisit its existing policy framework and explore better mechanisms to incentivise farmers to diversify from conventional crops like wheat and paddy to pulses. The court directed the Centre, through its Ministries of Agriculture, Commerce, and Consumer Affairs, to convene a multi-stakeholder meeting to examine several critical issues: the absence of an incentivised Minimum Support Price sufficient to cover the full cost of pulse cultivation for small and medium farmers, the absence of guaranteed timely purchase mechanisms for pulses, and the distortive impact of yellow pea imports on the domestic pulse price environment.

The Supreme Court’s intervention comes against the backdrop of a sharp decline in domestic pulse production, from 273 lakh tonnes in 2021-22 to 242 lakh tonnes in 2023-24, partly due to a disease that hit pulse crops across major producing states. This decline led the government to substantially increase imports of yellow peas, primarily from Canada and Australia, which are now priced at levels that undercut domestic pulse producers and create a price disincentive for farmers who might otherwise shift from paddy or wheat cultivation to pulses. The Additional Solicitor-General appearing for the Centre confirmed this dynamic to the court, which responded by observing that the government must realise that the real problem lies in the absence of guaranteed MSP for pulses.

For UPSC aspirants, this judicial intervention opens a window into one of the most persistent structural failures of Indian agricultural policy: the heavy concentration of price and procurement support on wheat and rice at the expense of nutritionally superior and environmentally more sustainable crops like pulses. The Minimum Support Price regime, the PM-AASHA scheme for assured price support, the import policy for agricultural commodities, and the constitutional responsibility for food security all intersect in this case.

Background and Context of Pulse Production in India

Five Important Key Points

• India is both the world’s largest producer and the world’s largest consumer of pulses, accounting for approximately 25 percent of global pulse production and 27 percent of global consumption, but this structural position has not translated into consistent self-sufficiency, with domestic production regularly falling short of consumption requirements and creating recurring import dependence.
• The decline in domestic pulse production from 273 lakh tonnes in 2021-22 to 242 lakh tonnes in 2023-24, a drop of approximately eleven percent, was precipitated primarily by a disease outbreak rather than by MSP or market failures alone, but the absence of risk protection and guaranteed procurement for pulse farmers means that production shocks translate immediately into farmer distress without any policy buffer.
• The MSP for pulses is announced annually by the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs on the basis of recommendations from the Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices, but the critical difference between pulses and wheat or rice is that the Food Corporation of India does not procure pulses at scale, meaning the MSP announcement is not backed by a credible procurement mechanism that would guarantee farmers the declared price.
• NAFED and NCCF are the nodal agencies for government procurement of pulses under the PM-AASHA scheme, but their procurement capacity and coverage are far smaller than the FCI’s wheat and rice operations, leaving most pulse farmers dependent on private mandis where prices can fall well below MSP, particularly during harvest peaks when market arrivals are high.
• Chief Justice Surya Kant’s observation that land diverted from paddy cultivation could be used for pulse cultivation is analytically significant because paddy cultivation in north India, particularly in Punjab and Haryana, has created an acute groundwater crisis, with water tables falling at rates that threaten long-term agricultural sustainability, making crop diversification toward less water-intensive pulses both a food security imperative and an environmental necessity.

Historical Background: The MSP Architecture and Its Bias

India’s MSP regime was established in 1965-66 as part of the Green Revolution policy framework, with the primary objective of incentivising wheat and rice production to overcome chronic food shortages. Over the subsequent six decades, the MSP architecture developed an entrenched bias toward these two commodities, reflected in the FCI’s massive procurement infrastructure that stands ready to purchase unlimited quantities of wheat and rice from farmers in notified states at declared MSP. No comparable procurement infrastructure exists for any other crop, including pulses, oilseeds, or coarse grains.

This asymmetry has profound consequences for crop choice. A farmer deciding between growing wheat and growing urad dal faces a fundamentally different risk environment: the wheat MSP is backed by guaranteed government procurement at a pre-announced price, effectively eliminating price risk, while the urad dal MSP is an advisory price that the government hopes but cannot guarantee that private markets will honour. Rational farmers, particularly those with limited financial reserves who cannot absorb the price risk of an open market transaction, will systematically choose wheat or rice over pulses, perpetuating the monoculture that depletes groundwater, reduces soil health, and creates nutritional deficits in the domestic food system.

The Import Policy Dimension

The government’s decision to import large quantities of yellow peas to bridge the domestic production shortfall has created a new and potentially self-reinforcing problem. Yellow pea imports from Canada and Australia are priced at levels that reflect the highly mechanised, large-scale, and heavily subsidised production systems of those countries. When these imports enter Indian markets, they compete directly with domestically grown chana, arhar, and moong, depressing farm-gate prices and reducing the incentive for Indian farmers to grow pulses in the next season. This dynamic, known as the import-induced price depression cycle, has been well documented in the oilseeds sector over the 1990s and 2000s following the reduction of import duties on edible oils.

The court’s direction that the government fix the cost price of yellow peas in a way that does not impact home-grown pulses addresses this concern but stops short of recommending specific quantitative restrictions or tariff adjustments, leaving the policy design to the executive. The tension between keeping consumer prices low through cheap imports and protecting farmer incomes through production incentives is one of the most difficult recurring choices in agricultural policy, and the court’s direction to convene a stakeholders’ meeting reflects the judicial recognition that this is a policy choice that needs expert input rather than judicial prescription.

Constitutional Dimensions: Directive Principles and Food Security

The constitutional basis for the court’s engagement with agricultural policy lies in the Directive Principles of State Policy, particularly Article 39(b) which directs the state to ensure that the ownership and control of the material resources of the community are distributed as best to sub-serve the common good, and Article 43 which mandates that the state work toward securing, by suitable legislation or economic organisation, a living wage and conditions of work ensuring a decent standard of life for agricultural labourers. While these provisions are not justiciable in themselves, they provide the constitutional mandate for judicial scrutiny of whether the government’s agricultural policies are serving their stated objectives of farmer welfare and food security.

Way Forward

The government should immediately extend FCI-equivalent procurement backing to at least two pulse crops, arhar and chana, in the major producing states, creating a genuine price floor that makes the MSP announcement credible. A dedicated pulse procurement corporation or an expansion of NAFED’s mandate with proportionately increased procurement capital would provide the institutional mechanism for this. The PLI scheme for food processing should be extended to pulse-based food products to create downstream demand that can absorb increased domestic production. Import duties on yellow peas should be calibrated annually on the basis of domestic production data, ensuring that import volumes fall when domestic production recovers.

Relevance for UPSC and SSC Examinations

This topic is directly relevant to UPSC Mains GS Paper III under Indian Economy, specifically agriculture, food security, government interventions in agricultural markets, and MSP policy. It also connects to GS Paper II through the Supreme Court’s supervisory role over executive policy and the Directive Principles of State Policy. For the Essay paper, themes around food security, farmer income, or agricultural reform would draw extensively on this analysis. For SSC examinations, topics of Indian economy, government schemes, and agriculture are tested. Key terms aspirants must remember include Minimum Support Price, Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices, PM-AASHA, NAFED, FCI, Food Corporation of India, yellow pea imports, crop diversification, Article 39(b), and Directive Principles of State Policy.

The Rajasthan Legislative Assembly passed the Rajasthan Prohibition of Transfer of Immovable Property in Disturbed Areas Bill on March 6, 2026, by voice vote. The legislation seeks to regulate property transactions in areas that the state government declares as disturbed, requiring prior approval from the District Magistrate or Collector before any immovable property, including land, houses, or commercial establishments, can be transferred by sale, gift, exchange, lease, or any other mechanism. Violations are treated as cognisable and non-bailable offences punishable with three to five years of imprisonment and a fine.

The bill has immediately drawn intense scrutiny from constitutional law experts, civil society organisations, and the political Opposition on multiple grounds. Critics argue that the bill replicates and potentially amplifies the Gujarat Disturbed Areas Act, a law that has been associated with the systematic ghettoisation of Muslim communities in Ahmedabad and other Gujarat cities rather than with the prevention of distress sales that it was originally designed to address. The Rajasthan government has framed the bill as a protective mechanism for vulnerable property owners in areas affected by communal tension, but the Opposition has questioned whether the bill’s real purpose is to institutionalise residential segregation by preventing property exchange across religious community lines.

For UPSC aspirants, this legislation raises a cluster of constitutional questions of the highest analytical importance: the status of the right to property under Article 300A after the 44th Amendment, the limits of state power to restrict property transactions in the name of public order, the application of Article 14’s equality guarantee to legislation that may have a disproportionate impact on minority communities, and the broader question of whether India’s constitutional framework permits laws that effectively freeze demographic patterns in particular areas. These are not merely theoretical questions but live constitutional debates that will almost certainly reach the Supreme Court.

Background and Context of the Disturbed Areas Legislation

Five Important Key Points

• The Rajasthan Bill draws direct comparison with the Gujarat Disturbed Areas Act, which originated in a 1986 ordinance passed after severe communal riots in Ahmedabad, was first enacted in 1991, and was strengthened through amendments in 2020, with the stated purpose being to prevent distress sales of property by minorities who felt compelled to leave riot-affected neighbourhoods and sell at low prices.
• Under Section 3(1)(2) of the Bill, the state government may declare any area as disturbed if it considers that communal violence, riots, or public disorder exist or are likely to occur, while Section 5 requires prior approval from the District Magistrate for any subsequent property transfer, with transactions conducted without such approval being treated as legally void under Section 5(2).
• Section 7 empowers the District Magistrate to inquire into whether a proposed transfer is voluntary and genuine or whether it involves coercion, intimidation, or a distress sale, but critics note that this provision could equally be used to block voluntary transactions between willing buyers and sellers from different communities.
• The right to property was removed as a fundamental right by the 44th Amendment to the Constitution in 1978, but remains protected under Article 300A, which states that no person shall be deprived of their property except by authority of law, a protection that the bill technically satisfies by providing the required legal authority, but which may still be challenged on grounds of proportionality and discriminatory application.
• In the context of the 2020 amendments to the Gujarat Disturbed Areas Act, then Chief Minister Vijay Rupani stated publicly that the intent of the law was to ensure that Hindus and Muslims remain within their own areas and do not exchange property with each other, a statement that legal observers have noted as unusually candid evidence of the segregationist intent behind such legislation.

Constitutional Framework: Article 300A and Property Rights

The 44th Amendment’s removal of the right to property from Part III of the Constitution, converting it from a fundamental right to a constitutional right under Article 300A, significantly reduced the judicial review intensity available for property-related legislation. Under the fundamental rights framework, any restriction on property required to satisfy the proportionality test applicable to fundamental rights. Under Article 300A, the state merely needs to show that the deprivation is authorised by law, a much lower threshold.

However, this lower threshold does not mean that the Rajasthan bill is constitutionally immune from challenge. Article 14’s guarantee of equality before the law and equal protection of the laws applies to all state action, including legislation. If the bill’s practical operation disproportionately restricts the property transactions of members of a particular religious community, whether by concentrating disturbed area declarations in Muslim-majority neighbourhoods or by using the District Magistrate’s approval process to systematically block transactions between members of different communities, it would be vulnerable to a discriminatory classification challenge under Article 14.

The Gujarat Experience: Evidence of Outcomes

The Gujarat Disturbed Areas Act provides a twenty-five year empirical record that is central to evaluating the likely impact of the Rajasthan bill. In Ahmedabad, a large share of the Muslim population is concentrated in Juhapura, widely described as one of the largest Muslim ghettos in western India, where concentration has intensified rather than moderated over the period of the Act’s operation. Academic researchers studying Ahmedabad’s spatial demography have documented that the Act effectively froze communal residential boundaries created by the 1992 and 2002 riots, preventing the organic processes of neighbourhood integration that might otherwise have occurred as economic and social mobility increased.

Critics argue that far from preventing distress sales, the Act has prevented willing integration by making it administratively cumbersome, if not impossible, for members of different communities to exchange property in notified areas. The approval requirement creates both formal barriers and informal deterrents, since a transaction that requires government approval involves public scrutiny, potential communal politicisation, and significant delay, all of which reduce the attractiveness of cross-community transactions even for willing participants.

Article 15 and Indirect Discrimination

While the bill does not explicitly name any religious community, its potential to operate as a proxy for religious discrimination raises concerns under Article 15, which prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth. The Supreme Court has increasingly recognised the doctrine of indirect discrimination, under which facially neutral laws that produce disproportionately adverse impacts on constitutionally protected groups can be challenged under Article 15, even without proof of discriminatory intent.

The precedent of the Gujarat Act’s administration provides circumstantial evidence that disturbed areas declarations tend to concentrate in Muslim-majority neighbourhoods, not because Muslims are more prone to communal violence but because the political dynamics of managing communal conflict incentivise state governments to restrict transactions in areas where minority communities are most vulnerable, effectively trapping them in spatially segregated enclaves.

Way Forward

The Rajasthan government should subject the bill to a thorough constitutional review before operationalisation, inviting independent legal opinion on its consistency with Articles 14, 15, and 300A. If the genuine purpose of the bill is to prevent distress sales, this can be achieved through targeted mechanisms that focus on the circumstances of individual transactions, such as a right of first refusal for existing residents or a compensation floor, rather than blanket restrictions on all property transfers in declared areas. The bill should also include mandatory sunset clauses and independent review mechanisms to prevent indefinite maintenance of disturbed area declarations in ways that permanently restrict property rights.

Relevance for UPSC and SSC Examinations

This topic is relevant to UPSC Mains GS Paper II under Indian Polity and Governance, specifically constitutional provisions, Articles 14, 15, and 300A, state legislature’s power to enact property legislation, and the 44th Amendment. It also connects to GS Paper I under communalism, social justice, and minority rights. For GS Paper IV, the ethical dimensions of legislation that may be technically legal but substantively discriminatory are directly addressed. For the Essay paper, themes around constitutional morality, secularism, or property rights would draw on this analysis. For SSC examinations, the Indian Constitution, fundamental rights, and state legislature powers are standard topics. Key terms aspirants must remember include Article 300A, 44th Amendment, Gujarat Disturbed Areas Act, Article 14, indirect discrimination, communal ghettoisation, District Magistrate’s approval, and Rajasthan Prohibition of Transfer of Immovable Property in Disturbed Areas Bill.

The 30th session of the United Nations Climate Change Conference, held in Belém, Brazil, in November 2025 and branded the COP of Implementation, marked a decisive shift in global climate governance. For the first time, global adaptation indicators integrated water, sanitation, and hygiene into climate accountability under the UAE Framework for Global Climate Resilience, establishing fifty-nine specific Belém Adaptation Indicators that create measurable benchmarks for how nations respond to climate stress. India’s performance against these indicators, and the alignment between the Belém framework and India’s domestic water governance architecture, has emerged as a significant policy question for the country’s climate diplomacy and development planning.

The integration of water, sanitation, and hygiene into climate accountability is not merely symbolic. Climate change is experienced most viscerally through water. In India, nearly eighty percent of natural disasters are water-related, from the floods that submerge Bihar and Assam annually, to the droughts that hollow out Marathwada and Bundelkhand, to the glacial lake outburst floods that threaten Himalayan valleys, to the coastal saline intrusion that contaminates aquifers in Kerala and the Sundarban delta. Agriculture, which accounts for approximately forty percent of anthropogenic methane emissions globally, sits at the intersection of water management and climate action in ways that make the two inseparable for any country with India’s agrarian profile.

For UPSC aspirants, the Belém indicators represent the new frontier in India’s climate obligation architecture, sitting alongside the Nationally Determined Contributions under the Paris Agreement and the National Action Plan on Climate Change. Understanding how these international frameworks interact with India’s domestic water governance structures, and where the gaps and opportunities lie, is essential preparation for both the UPSC Mains General Studies papers and the Essay paper.

Background and Context of the Belém Adaptation Framework

Five Important Key Points

• The fifty-nine Belém Adaptation Indicators, adopted under the UAE Framework for Global Climate Resilience, fall into two primary clusters: the first focuses on climate-resilient water and sanitation systems including reduction of climate-induced water scarcity, flood and drought resilience, universal access to safe drinking water, and upgraded sanitation infrastructure; the second emphasises risk governance including universal multi-hazard early warning systems by 2027 and updated national vulnerability assessments by 2030.
• India’s consolidation of water governance under the Ministry of Jal Shakti in 2019 marked a foundational shift toward integrated water stewardship, and the Water Vision 2047 explicitly aligns with the Belém adaptation framework by emphasising sustainability, equity, and resilience as its three core principles, suggesting a degree of institutional readiness that other developing nations lack.
• The evolution of the National Aquifer Mapping and Management Programme 2.0 from merely mapping aquifers to implementing aquifer-level management plans exemplifies the kind of systems integration that Belém indicators now require, moving from hydrogeological knowledge to operational policy action at the local level.
• Global rhetoric around adaptation finance speaks of mobilising 1.3 trillion dollars annually by 2035, but operational pathways remain deeply uncertain, and without predictable flows of adaptation finance, post-disaster recovery spending consistently crowds out long-term resilience planning, creating a structural bias in national budgets toward reactive rather than proactive climate adaptation.
• India’s female Labour Force Participation Rate rose from 23.3 percent in 2017-18 to 41.7 percent in 2023-24, driven largely by rural women entering work due to distress, insecure employment, and unpaid household work, a dynamic that makes climate-induced water scarcity a specifically gender-differentiated burden since women in rural India bear a disproportionate share of water collection responsibility.

The UAE Framework for Global Climate Resilience: A New Governance Architecture

The UAE Framework, adopted at COP 28 in Dubai, replaced the pre-2025 Cancun Adaptation Framework and for the first time created a structured monitoring architecture for adaptation outcomes rather than merely for adaptation actions. The distinction is crucial: previous frameworks tracked whether countries were undertaking adaptation planning processes, while the new framework tracks whether those processes are producing measurable improvements in climate resilience. The Belém indicators operationalise this shift by creating specific, time-bound targets against which country performance can be assessed.

For India, this shift from process to outcome measurement creates both opportunities and challenges. India has an extensive array of climate adaptation programmes, including the National Mission for Clean Ganga, the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana, the Jal Jeevan Mission, the National Aquifer Mapping Programme, and multiple urban resilience schemes. The question the Belém indicators force is whether these programmes are producing the outcomes they target, and whether those outcomes can be measured, reported, and verified against international benchmarks.

India’s Water Governance Strengths and Gaps

India’s institutional landscape for water governance has strengthened considerably over the past decade. The Jal Jeevan Mission, launched in 2019, aimed to provide functional household tap connections to all rural households by 2024 and had connected approximately 140 million households by early 2026. The National Mission for Clean Ganga has moved beyond sewage treatment to integrate biodiversity monitoring, digital surveillance, and international collaboration with Germany, Australia, and Israel. The Ministry of Jal Shakti has begun embedding climate stress testing into infrastructure planning for major dam and irrigation projects.

However, three systemic gaps threaten to prevent India from meeting the Belém indicator benchmarks. First, water scarcity remains acute and unevenly distributed, with the Indo-Gangetic plains overlying some of the world’s most rapidly depleting aquifers while Himalayan rivers remain largely unregulated and subject to extreme flood and drought cycles. The Jal Jeevan Mission’s coverage figures mask significant quality and reliability gaps, particularly in groundwater-dependent regions where arsenic and fluoride contamination remain health crises. Second, adaptation finance at the project level remains fragile, with water infrastructure projects typically classified as development expenditure rather than climate investment, making them ineligible for international climate finance under established additionality criteria. Third, India’s vast hydrological and meteorological data systems remain digitally fragmented across multiple agencies including the Central Water Commission, the India Meteorological Department, the National Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasting, and state-level irrigation departments, preventing the real-time integrated decision-making that the Belém indicators envision.

Geopolitical and Diplomatic Dimensions

Water governance has become an increasingly significant dimension of India’s climate diplomacy. India’s position as a potential leader in operationalising adaptation at scale for the Global South depends on whether it can demonstrate that its domestic reforms translate into the measurable outcomes that the Belém indicators require. At COP 30, India participated as a developing country seeking both technology transfer and financial support, while simultaneously positioning itself as a country with significant domestic capacity and a model for large-scale water governance transformation.

The Himalayan water dimension adds a geopolitical layer that no other country faces in quite the same way. India shares major river systems with China, Nepal, Bhutan, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, and climate-induced changes in the Himalayan cryosphere are already generating interstate tensions over water sharing, disaster risk, and infrastructure. The ISRO study on ice-patch collapse hazards in the Srikanta Glacier, discussed separately, is part of this broader picture of how Himalayan deglaciation is creating new and unpredictable water governance challenges that extend across international boundaries.

Way Forward

India should immediately embed Belém adaptation indicator targets into the mission dashboards of the Ministry of Jal Shakti, the National Mission for Clean Ganga, the Jal Jeevan Mission, and the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana, creating an integrated reporting architecture that can produce verifiable outcome data for international review. The Finance Ministry should classify water resilience infrastructure projects, including aquifer recharge, flood protection, and climate-proof sanitation, as eligible for green climate finance under the Green Climate Fund and the Adaptation Fund, unlocking international resources for domestic adaptation. India should lead a coalition of Global South countries in advocating for a simpler, more accessible adaptation finance architecture at COP 31 that reduces the transaction costs currently faced by developing country applicants.

Relevance for UPSC and SSC Examinations

This topic is relevant to UPSC Mains GS Paper III under environment and ecology, specifically climate change adaptation, water conservation, and international environmental agreements. It also connects to GS Paper II through India’s multilateral climate diplomacy and the UNFCCC framework. The water governance dimension connects to GS Paper III’s topic of government policies and interventions for development. For the Essay paper, themes on water security, climate adaptation, or India’s global responsibilities are directly supported. For SSC examinations, topics of environment, climate change, international organisations, and government schemes are standard. Key terms aspirants must remember include Belém Adaptation Indicators, UAE Framework for Global Climate Resilience, Jal Jeevan Mission, NAQUIM, National Mission for Clean Ganga, Green Climate Fund, Nationally Determined Contributions, Paris Agreement, and Ministry of Jal Shakti.